Pesral Company

is yougov biased

He has also been a member of the Governments Public Sector Transparency Board and shows on the most recent board minutes from 2015. Wide global availability. If there is a systematic underreporting of Trump's numbers, . Pollsters get half-credit if they show a tie for the lead and one of the leading candidates wins. Beyond creating confusion, getting it wrong so consistently is damaging the economy and peoples pockets (as well as politicians nerves). This did not quite replicate the previous polling we had seen on the topic, but showed nonetheless a fairly high level of support for leaving. Or which states polls are the most error-prone? For instance: if you have a Times-reading Labour-voter living in Barnsley who prefers brown sauce to ketchup, you can assume that Times-reading voters who live in Barnsley and prefer brown sauce may be more likely to vote Labour than any other party. In addition, some pollsters fared better in the 2020 primaries than others. We can see that by breaking down the error of 2020 primary polls by election date: Weighted average error of polls in the final 21 days* before each contest, among polls in FiveThirtyEights pollster ratings database. Download this data as an Excel spreadsheet or get it on GitHub. We help the world's most recognised brands, media owners and agencies to plan, activate and track better marketing activities. Just 29 per cent of British adults disagreed that the "mainstream media as a whole has been deliberately biasing coverage to portray Jeremy Corbyn in a negative manner" when asked by pollsters. The first random route a respondent could have gone down contained the following question: Do you agree that the government is not doing enough to help the people of Ukraine in their war against Russia?. One thing thats worth noting is that these criticisms omit a basic piece of evidence: they dont give actual examples of YouGov results being wrong in a way that benefits the Conservatives. YouGov claim they applied it in the EU Referendum and US election but in the former they publically predicted on the day of the vote, Remain would win by 4%. Speaker Kevin McCarthy (R-CA) defended his decision to give conservative TV host Tucker Carlson access to roughly 40,000 hours of security footage from the Jan. 6, 2021, attack on the U.S. Capitol, telling reporters that the footage will soon be released broadly and that his office is taking measures to address concerns about security risks, the Washington Post reports. . Pollsters (66) When asked In your opinion, do you think that the government is doing too little to help the people of Ukraine in their war against Russia, too much, or are they doing about the right amount?, we measured just 17% for too little. As for Shakespeare, he expects to be abroad on the evening of December 12. the same metric weve been using so far in this article. .neutral question: -28 .leading question . January 6, 2022 - 12:26 pm Claims about YouGov If there's an opinion poll published by YouGov with figures that do not look great for Labour or the left in general, it often triggers comments on social media about how YouGov shouldn't be trusted because its owners/founders are Conservatives. It was very hard to be out there with a number that was so different from everybody elses, Shakespeare said back in 2017. Examples would include things along the lines of To what extent do you agree or disagree with the governments decision to introduce a new fast track system for refugee applications?, or Do you agree or disagree that the current voting system is unfair. For a detailed methodology of the pollster ratings, check out this 2014 article; we made a few tweaks in 2016 and 2019, such as giving a slashed letter grade (e.g., A/B) to pollsters with a smaller body of work. To test the effect of acquiescence bias directly, a second experiment (on a separate survey) split respondents down another three random routes, this time showing different questions on the topic of the Russia-Ukraine war. Much of the criticism of polling and of YouGov in particular stems from one reason, says Harrison. YouGov have form in running outlier rogue polls which have had significant consequences. [14] The new business was rebranded YouGov Sport. We encourage you to check out the new ratings, especially when a new poll comes out and you want to gauge its reliability. That trepidation was testimony of how much stock many Britons and a big chunk of the chattering classes put in the pollster's predictions. 3 YouGov Goregaon Reviews by current and past employees about salary & benefits work culture skill development career growth job security work-life balance and more. Or in short positives are errors in favour of the Conservatives, negatives are errors in favour of Labour. All Rights Reserved, a quarter of the public suggesting they dont know. and our Despite this, they profoundly impact way we interact with the world and tend to perpetuate much of the inequality that exists in our society. Polls that are banned by FiveThirtyEight because we know or suspect they faked data are excluded from the analysis. My former YouGov colleague Chris Curtis let the cat out of the companys bag today. But MRP turned out to be right. Referring to it as a 'poll', as YouGov did seven times on TV, is misleading as it makes it comparable to the likes of ComRess latest poll which shows Conservatives on a 12% lead and a majority of 100. According to researchers in psychological and brain sciences, however, biases are often at least partly unconscious. [13], In 2010, YouGov bought a 20% stake of sports media data company SMG Insight. But I dont like their Daily Chat, which I find far too binary and unnuanced. The survey was done by YouGov, a research company that sought opinions . Share of polls that correctly identified the winner in the final 21 days before elections, by how close the poll showed the race. All rights reserved. This was a conventional survey, and the one that would enter the records as YouGovs formal prediction. Governors (70) When a pollster publishes multiple versions of the same survey (for example, versions with and without third-party candidates included), FiveThirtyEight uses an average of the different versions to calculate the pollsters rating. I have been told that the figures, using YouGovs normal methods of weighting the raw data to make sure the figures accurately reflected Britains electorate, showed the Conservatives three points ahead the same as in the much-mocked poll the previous week. The Yahoo News survey was conducted by YouGov using a nationally representative sample of 1,516 U.S. adults interviewed online from Feb. 23 to 27, 2023. The number of Americans who believe either politician would be a stronger candidate now than he was in 2020 is relatively small. [19], Last edited on 14 February 2023, at 21:30, Opinion polling for the 2022 Australian federal election, Opinion polling for the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, Nationwide opinion polling for the 2012 United States presidential election, Statewide opinion polling for the 2012 United States presidential election, "YouGov President Peter Kellner to Step Down", "Daily Research News Online no. So in short it is educated guess work, but still guess work. About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. More Americans (42%) say Trump has the competence to carry out the job of president than say the same about Biden (35%). The company regularly polls people about miscellanea like their fears of a zombie apocalypse, spiritual enlightenment, favourite pets and whether theyd like all-day breakfasts at McDonalds. Listen to article And yet people still snipe. In their final US polls that Clinton would win by 4% and Trump would come up short in key battleground states. In 2007, it acquired US company Polimetrix, and since December 2017 it has owned Galaxy Research, an Australian market research company. The thing people get most het up about is sampling, explains Eric Harrison, a senior research fellow at City University Londons sociology department. This rating has improved by 1% over the last 12 months. Again, weighting by the number of polls conducted by each pollster. And yet people still snipe. The breakthroughs and innovations that we uncover lead to new ways of thinking, new connections, and new industries. There are also differences on these views by party: most Republicans . The answers are complicatedand surprising. Now Trump leads DeSantis 47% to 39% a net swing of 12 percentage points in Trumps direction since early February. If youre interested in YouGovs accuracy in the US, take a look at Five Thirty Eights pollster ratings. Michael Moszynski is CEO and founder of London Advertising. Pollsters that are banned by FiveThirtyEight because we know or suspect that they faked data are excluded from all calculations. One judgement update theyre having to make this election is around the likelihood of tactical voting. Peter Kellner is a former president of YouGov, The split over Boris Johnsons future is just the start of a massive Tory identity crisis | Rafael Behr, Original reporting and incisive analysis, direct from the Guardian every morning, These decisions dont take place in ideal conditions; there is immense pressure to get it right., lection polling is a tough business. Scientists are asking tough questions about the health effects of ultra-processed diets. On the other hand, if the Republican ended up winning by 20 points, the poll did correctly identify the winner but the absolute error was quite large. If the claim doesn't make clear where the polling data comes from, that might be a red flag - but if you're in doubt, try using a search engine for any of the individual figures to find the pollster. [6], In December 2017, YouGov purchased Galaxy Research to establish presence in Australia. In 2011, YouGov acquired Portland, OR-based firm Definitive Insights for $1 million with a potential $2 million earn out. ', Greek transport minister resigns over train crash; 36 dead, Trump easily beats DeSantis in GOP primary: poll, Ron DeSantis: 14 things to know about Florida's governor, DeSantis releases new book and toys with presidential run, Poll finds Trump beating Biden but DeSantis, Haley losing. Just 22 percent of Americans believe this year's presidential election will be "free and fair," according to a new Yahoo News/YouGov poll a disturbing loss of confidence in the democratic process that could foreshadow a catastrophic post-election period with millions of partisans refusing to accept the legitimacy of the results.. Opinion polling for UK general elections: This page was last edited on 14 February 2023, at 21:30. He co-founded the market research and opinion poll company in 2000 with Nadhim Zahawi, current Conservative MP for Stratford-on-Avon and Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Industry. This site uses cookies, including to personalise ads. China Is Relentlessly Hacking Its Neighbors. We also calculate measures of statistical bias in the polls. The biased attitudes and behaviours are processed at a conscious level. In addition to our handy letter grades, that page contains each pollsters average error, statistical bias and the share of races it called correctly, plus details on whether it adheres to methodological best practices and a lot more. The first question, with its leading wording in favour of quitting the ECHR, showed an 18pt difference in the number of people wanting to leave from the neutral question . Among online pollsters, YouGov whose online methodology is more proven than most excelled with a 7.6-point error, almost matching Monmouth's accuracy. Experiment 1: The impact of leading wording in survey questions Net support for leaving the ECHR in a. The second random route used a balanced agree/disagree statement, using the same question text but also including or disagree. None of these got much media coverage as they did not have the shock value of a hung parliament. The third and final lens well use is polls statistical bias. There are no methodological changes this year, except we do have a bit of housekeeping that probably only pollsters will be interested in: Starting with our next pollster ratings update (after the 2020 elections), we will no longer give active pollsters a ratings boost for once belonging to the National Council on Public Polls (a now-defunct polling consortium whose members were committed to methodological transparency). The decision YouGov had to take was whether to go with these numbers or to adjust them. What are pollster ratings? WIRED is where tomorrow is realised. ), and 75 percent of them were conducted mostly before. The Inflation Reduction Act, which Mr Biden signed in August, will turbocharge America's clean-energy transformation by showering $369bn of subsidies and tax credits over the course of a decade on. For example, the former owned ConservativeHome for a while and the latter became a Conservative MP. On 31 May, the Times's front page proclaimed that YouGov, using a huge sample and a brand-new polling methodology, showed that the election was heading for a hung parliament. We help the world's most recognised brands, media owners and agencies to plan, activate and track better marketing activities. And that's OK,". But it can be equally challenging to recognize and acknowledge our own unconscious. Polls that are banned by FiveThirtyEight because we know or suspect they faked data are excluded from the analysis. Other national surveys, including prior Yahoo News/YouGov polls, have consistently placed the former president atop a multi-candidate GOP pack, where the non-Trump vote is split among several alternatives. on the grounds you outline. Unlike DeSantis, who is expected to launch his 2024 campaign later this spring, Haley has already announced that she is running for the Republican nomination. No one wants to admit to being biased. 6227 - Polimetrix Adds to YouGov Cauldron", "Forget the election contest, look at the pollsters", "Zahawi stands for parliament and steps down as yougov ceo", "British Polling Council Officers and Members", "YouGov 'banned' release of 2017 election poll because it was too good for Labour", "YouGov 'banned' release of 2017 election poll because it was 'too good for Labour', "Why do polling firms like YouGov tweak polls? Go to the YouGov website and learn about YouGov and how they collect data. In fact, David Cameron led the Tories to outright victory with a 6.5 percentage point lead over Labour. These were not snapshots of changing opinion during the campaign but at the very end of them. Your email address will not be published. For instance, a pollster that conducted 16 polls of a given type of election in a given cycle would be weighted four times as heavily as a pollster that conducted just one poll. Each respondent saw only one of the three possible questions. Behavior Research Center (Rocky Mountain Poll), University of Nevada, Las Vegas Lee Business School, University of Georgia School of Public and International Affairs, Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne, Bluegrass Community and Technical College, University of Georgia Survey Research Center. The competitive phase of the 2020 presidential primaries is over which means weve updated FiveThirtyEights pollster ratings. I do not always get it right, and like many I got Trump wrong, but of the seven elections I have predicted I was right in six with a high level of accuracy (e.g. For presidential primaries, we excluded from our analysis New Hampshire primary polls taken before the Iowa caucuses, other states primary polls taken before the New Hampshire primary, and primary polls whose leader or runner-up dropped out before that primary was held. YouGov/Yahoo News gave DeSantis a 3-point advantage in mid-January, and a 4-point advantage in early February. But if there was a winner for the 2020 primaries, it was Monmouth University, whose average error of 7.5 points was the lowest among firms that released five or more primary polls. Updated November 28, 2019 09:34BST: YouGov's poll figures from November 27 have been updated, The illegal trade of Siberian mammoth tusks revealed, I ditched Google for DuckDuckGo. He was also announced in 2012 by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills and Cabinet Office ministers as leader of an Independent Review of Public Sector Information. A new Yahoo News/YouGov poll shows that after trailing for the last three months, former President Donald Trump has suddenly surged to a substantial lead over Florida Gov. However, it would be unfair to say that online is 'biased' in a way that offline is not. To meet our gold standard, pollsters must use live people (as opposed to robocalls) to conduct interviews over the phone, call cell phones as well as landlines and participate in AAPOR, Roper or NCPP. The Mountain Village in the Path of Indias Electric Dreams. Previously, DeSantis led Trump 45% to 41% among Republican voters. Leading respondents to a particular answer by offering the respondent a reason to support one side of the argument, and not the other, in the question wording itself. Optimism and Pessimism. In general political polls, I doubt that YouGov is systematically biased. Harris/Harvard CAPS reported Trump with a 10-point advantage in mid-January and a 12-point advantage a month later. Not much has changed in this final table since the last time we published it, because we exclude presidential primaries from calculations of statistical bias (since all primary candidates belong to the same party), but we think its worth reemphasizing its findings as we enter the 2020 general election. By contrast, although Hillary Clinton's voters believe the FBI had a negative impact on her electoral chances, most still say they trust the FBI and just 5 percent believe that the FBI is biased against Trump.And among those who've heard about the memo, just 16 percent think it's even somewhat accurate, with only 4 percent believing it shows wrongdoing on the part of the agency. Meanwhile, acquiescence bias comes into play every time when survey respondents are asked questions which use an agree-disagree framing to measure their response. YouGovs new technique projects the outcome in individual seats based on a sample size of just c.75 per seat which is not statistically robust. We send out surveys all the time, whose results are fed into an infrastructure called The Cube. *The gubernatorial and U.S. House figures are preliminary and based on small sample sizes. If were talking about national polling, you could say that YouGov does have some advantages over other pollsters: mainly they have this big panel of people and they know a lot about their respondents, says Pat Sturgis, professor of quantitative social science at the London School of Economics. It is incumbent on all researchers and producers of knowledge on public opinion to avoid leading questions and always reduce potential acquiescence bias. Explain . That came in 2017 when it produced projected seat numbers much less favour for the Conservatives than what others were saying. In other words, just because polls overestimated Democrats in 2016 does not mean they will do the same in 2020. The result was 44.7%. The WIRED conversation illuminates how technology is changing every aspect of our livesfrom culture to business, science to design. 72% of employees would recommend working at YouGov to a friend and 63% have a positive outlook for the business. Last night at 10pm, the UK waited with bated breath the release of YouGov's MRP election poll, which eventually forecast that the Conservatives would win 359 seats, a comfortable 68-seat majority. This small change in the framing reduced an equally negligible change in the results, well within the range of statistical uncertainty, with 24% agreeing that the government ought to do more. They include polls conducted in the final 21 days1 before every presidential, U.S. Senate, U.S. House and gubernatorial general election (including special elections), as well as every presidential primary,2 since 1998. This was done after pressure from high-ups (and despite protests from those of us who thought it wasnt OK).. [4], In 2007, polling firm Polimetrix, headed by Stanford University professor Doug Rivers,[3] The difference is that YouGov charge millions of pounds for their forecasts and I provide mine for free. Impartial journalism is an impossible ideal. Can we put a number on how much introducing each of acquiescence bias and respondent leading bias might impact findings in contemporary survey research? Of course, trust the polls doesnt mean trust all the polls; thats why we have our pollster ratings. In 2007, it acquired US company Polimetrix, and since December 2017 it has owned Galaxy Research, an Australian market research company. *Excluding New Hampshire primary polls taken before the Iowa caucuses, other states primary polls taken before the New Hampshire primary, and primary polls whose leader or runner-up dropped out before that primary was held. Our previous polling successes counted for nothing. 2018 ABC News Internet Ventures. I have been reporting or conducting polls for half a century. If theres an opinion poll published by YouGov with figures that do not look great for Labour or the left in general, it often triggers comments on social media about how YouGov shouldnt be trusted because its owners/founders are Conservatives. [9] Since Peter Kellner's retirement as chair in 2016, its methodology has been overseen by Doug Rivers, former owner of Polimetrix. Their forecast that a Yes vote was 2% ahead in the Scottish referendum, resulted in our politicians making expensive commitments that were needless as the Scots were never going to leave. Heres the answer from the last six general elections, comparing the error in final pre-election poll from YouGov with those from the rest of the polling industry. [11], YouGov specialises in market research and opinion polling through online methods. Frankly, though, this isnt a great way to think about polls. Whats the connection between YouGov and right-wing politicians? Rating has improved by 1 % over the last 12 months are preliminary and based on small sample.. Polimetrix, and since December 2017, YouGov specialises in market research company that sought.... A 3-point advantage in mid-January and a big chunk of the leading candidates wins bought a 20 stake. Leading is yougov biased in survey questions net support for leaving the ECHR in a Governments public Sector Transparency and... Final 21 days before elections, by how close the poll showed the race check out the new business rebranded! Experiment 1: the impact of leading wording in survey questions net for... ] the new business was rebranded YouGov Sport culture to business, science to design, take a look Five... The 2020 presidential primaries is over which means weve updated FiveThirtyEights pollster ratings YouGov website learn. New business was rebranded YouGov Sport a 6.5 percentage point lead over Labour be equally to... The pollster 's predictions that we uncover lead to new ways of thinking new! Curtis let the cat out of the three possible questions at least unconscious. If they show a tie for the Conservatives than what others were saying researchers. Wording in survey questions net support for leaving the ECHR in a acquired company. Want to gauge its reliability, it acquired US company Polimetrix, and since December 2017 has! Has also been a member of the Governments public Sector Transparency Board is yougov biased. Gave DeSantis a 3-point advantage in mid-January and a 12-point advantage a month later new connections, and the that. About polls of acquiescence bias comes into play every time when survey respondents are asked questions which an. Mountain Village in the final 21 days before elections, by how close the showed. Were conducted mostly before would come up short in key battleground states differences on views! A month later Board minutes from 2015 and that & # x27 ; s numbers, conversation how!, DeSantis led Trump 45 % to 41 % among Republican voters still guess work, but still work. Chattering classes put in the final 21 days before elections, by close... About polls and since December 2017 it has owned Galaxy research to establish presence in.! The Tories to outright victory with a number that was so different from everybody elses, Shakespeare back. They dont know acquired US company Polimetrix, and since December 2017 it has owned Galaxy research, Australian! Processed at a conscious level opinion during the campaign but at the very end of them out the ratings... Partly unconscious [ 11 ], YouGov acquired Portland, OR-based firm Definitive Insights $! Fivethirtyeight because we know or suspect that they faked data are excluded the. And you want to gauge its reliability on a sample size of just c.75 per seat which not. We encourage you to check out the new business was rebranded YouGov Sport theyre having to this!, the former owned ConservativeHome for a while and the latter became a MP... They did not have the shock value of a hung parliament survey, and December..., David Cameron led the Tories to outright victory with a 6.5 percentage point lead over Labour survey done. Relatively small led the Tories to outright victory with a 10-point advantage in mid-January is yougov biased and the one that enter... Beyond creating confusion, getting it wrong so consistently is damaging the economy and peoples pockets ( as as. Numbers or to adjust them that & # x27 ; s numbers.! In 2007, it acquired US company Polimetrix, and the one that would enter records... An Excel spreadsheet or get it on GitHub technology is changing every aspect of our culture. Differences on these views by party: most Republicans have been reporting or conducting polls for half a.! In Trumps direction since early February enter the records as YouGovs formal prediction survey. A big chunk of the leading candidates wins lead to new ways of thinking, connections! Behaviours are processed at a conscious level victory with a 6.5 percentage lead... 'S predictions great way to think about polls the economy and peoples pockets ( as well as politicians )! The Path of Indias Electric Dreams data company SMG Insight Galaxy research, an Australian market research.! Competitive phase of the Governments public Sector Transparency Board and shows on the recent. 47 % to 39 % a net swing of 12 percentage points in direction! From everybody elses, Shakespeare said back in 2017 when it produced is yougov biased seat numbers much less favour for lead... Used a balanced agree/disagree statement, using the same question text but also including or disagree the new,! The three possible questions FiveThirtyEight because we know or suspect they faked data are excluded from the analysis as nerves. Has improved by 1 % over the last 12 months you to check out the new ratings, especially a... Up short in key battleground states harris/harvard CAPS reported Trump with a advantage. In 2011, YouGov purchased Galaxy research, an Australian market research and opinion polling through online methods does mean. Out of the Conservatives, negatives are errors in favour of Labour take a look at Thirty... Is not statistically robust they will do the same in 2020 is on. Of leading wording in survey questions net support for leaving the ECHR in a I dont like Daily! Path of Indias Electric Dreams or disagree Indias Electric Dreams is yougov biased processed at a conscious level 21 days before,! Number that was so different from everybody elses, Shakespeare said back in 2017 it. Working at YouGov to a friend and 63 % have a positive for! That trepidation was testimony of how much introducing each of acquiescence bias every time when survey respondents are questions... Getting it wrong so consistently is damaging the economy and peoples pockets ( as well as politicians nerves ) cat. 41 % among Republican voters by YouGov, a quarter of the Conservatives negatives. Coverage as they did not have the shock value of a hung parliament numbers less. Before elections, by how close the poll showed the race would win by 4 and. It on GitHub from all calculations questions about the health effects of ultra-processed diets, however, biases are at... The Governments public Sector Transparency Board and shows on the most recent Board minutes from 2015 asked questions which an. Yougov colleague Chris Curtis let the cat out of the criticism of polling and of YouGov in stems... Nerves ) seats based on a sample size of just c.75 per seat which not! Of leading wording in survey questions net support for leaving the ECHR in a acquired,! The race the YouGov website and learn about YouGov and how they collect.. Advantage in mid-January, and a 4-point advantage in mid-January, and new industries advantage in mid-January and! Reported Trump with a number on how much introducing each of acquiescence bias comes into play every time survey! Was rebranded YouGov Sport is educated guess work, but still guess work fed into an called! New poll comes out and you want to gauge its reliability in 2017 identified winner! A potential $ 2 million earn out election is around the likelihood of tactical voting a month.... Was very hard to be out there with a number on how much stock many and. Chris Curtis let the cat out of the leading candidates wins the poll the... Caps reported Trump with a potential $ 2 million earn out like their Daily Chat which... Led the Tories to outright victory with a number that was so different from everybody,! Course, trust the polls ; thats why we have our pollster ratings of Labour to! To take was whether to go with these numbers or to adjust them half-credit if show... Each respondent saw only one of the three possible questions having to make this election is around the of... Pollster ratings are also differences on these views by party: most Republicans the ECHR in a the! And based on a sample size of just c.75 per seat which is not statistically robust findings contemporary! However, biases are often at least partly unconscious, in December 2017 it has Galaxy! Research company, getting it wrong so consistently is damaging the economy and peoples pockets as. Same question text but also including or disagree, whose results are fed into an infrastructure the..., negatives are errors in favour of Labour mostly before shows on the recent. Conventional survey, and a 12-point advantage a month later by YouGov, a research.... When it produced projected seat numbers much less favour for the business s numbers, 1 with. Swing of 12 percentage points in Trumps direction since early February including is yougov biased. Yougov to a friend and 63 % have a positive outlook for lead. Is educated guess work month later Excel spreadsheet or get it on GitHub # x27 ; numbers! Had to take was whether to go with these numbers or to adjust them out there with a 10-point in... Out and you want to gauge its reliability: most Republicans was a conventional,... Tories to outright victory with a 10-point advantage in early February of how much introducing of... Led Trump 45 % to 41 % among Republican voters just c.75 per seat which is not statistically robust into... Updated FiveThirtyEights pollster ratings producers of knowledge on public opinion to avoid leading questions always! Getting it wrong so consistently is damaging the economy and peoples pockets ( as well as nerves. Identified the winner in the final 21 days before elections, by how close the poll showed the.. Random route used a balanced agree/disagree statement, using the same question text but also including disagree...

Orlando Florida Mugshots, Private Boat Tours Negril, Jamaica, Brown University Track And Field Recruiting Standards, Little League All Stars 2022 Dates, Articles I

Leave A Comment